Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States

Prepregnancy Counseling and Care for People of Childbearing Age With HIV

Overview

Overview

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), and other national organizations recommend offering all people of childbearing potential comprehensive family planning and the opportunity to receive prepregnancy counseling and care as a component of routine primary medical care. The purpose of prepregnancy care is to improve the health of each person before conception by identifying risk factors for adverse outcomes for the pregnant person and their fetus, tailoring education and counseling to individual needs, and treating or stabilizing medical conditions to optimize outcomes for the pregnancy and the fetus/newborn.^1,2 Prepregnancy care is not something that occurs in a single clinical visit; rather, it requires integrating ongoing care and interventions into primary care to address people’s needs during the different stages of reproductive life. Integrating comprehensive family planning and prepregnancy care into routine health care visits can help people with HIV reach their desired reproductive outcomes by supporting them to make informed decisions about their fertility and contraceptive use that are aligned with their preferences and reproductive goals.^3-6 Providers should initiate and document a nonjudgmental conversation with all people of reproductive age about their reproductive desires because they may be reluctant to bring up the subject themselves.^7-11

A meta-analysis of 50 studies found a 42% prevalence of fertility desire among people with HIV. In a pooled analysis, fertility desire was associated with being on antiretroviral therapy (ART), male sex, age younger than 30, being married or cohabitating, a secondary education or higher, and being childless.¹² In a retrospective study among 255 women with HIV, 69 (27.1%) reported an intended pregnancy. Those with intended pregnancies were more likely to be older, White, married, privately insured, and college educated. They were less likely than those with unintended pregnancies to use tobacco, alcohol, opiates, or cocaine during pregnancy, more likely to disclose their HIV status to the father of the baby by delivery, and more likely to receive less effective contraception (e.g., condoms) postpartum. In a multivariate analysis, pregnancy intendedness was an important predictor of nondetectable viral load at pregnancy entry but not at delivery.¹³ Pregnancy intentions may not be binary and may change over time, thus underscoring the need for health care providers to engage in ongoing discussions to support dynamic pregnancy intentions.¹¹

Health care providers who routinely care for people of reproductive age with HIV play an important role in promoting prepregnancy health and informed reproductive decisions. However, even among providers who offer primary care to people with HIV, the delivery of comprehensive reproductive counseling often falls short of the current guidelines.^14-16

The fundamental principles of prepregnancy counseling and care are outlined in the CDC Preconception Care Work Group’s Recommendations to Improve Preconception Health and Health Care. In addition to the general components of prepregnancy counseling and care that are appropriate for all people of reproductive age, people with HIV have specific needs that should be addressed.^17-20

• Discuss reproductive options; actively assess their pregnancy intentions on an ongoing basis throughout the course of care; and, when appropriate, make referrals to HIV and reproductive health specialists, including experts in reproductive endocrinology and infertility when necessary. The HIV status of one or both parents should not be a reason to withhold standard of care infertility treatment and assist individuals and couples in reaching their desired reproductive outcomes.
• Offer all people who currently do not desire pregnancy a full range of contraceptive methods to help them achieve their fertility goals. People with HIV can use all available contraceptive methods, including hormonal contraception (e.g., pill, patch, ring, injection, implant) and intrauterine devices (IUDs); see Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use and the updated summary chart.²¹ Providers should be aware of the presence of other medical co-morbidities and potential interactions between antiretroviral (ARV) drugs, hormonal contraceptives, and other medications that could lower contraceptive efficacy or increase the risk of such adverse effects as blood clots (see Table 3 below).
• Offer emergency contraception as appropriate, including emergency contraceptive pills and IUDs (see the ACOG Practice Bulletin on Emergency Contraception). Emergency contraceptive pills that contain estrogen and progestin and those that only contain levonorgestrel (LNG) may have interactions with ARV drugs that are similar to the ones observed with combined oral contraceptives.²² AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG) 5375 showed that doubling the dose of LNG from 1.5 mg to 3 mg in women receiving efavirenz (EFV)-based ART helped overcome the drug–drug interaction with this ARV.^23,24 No data are available on potential interactions between ARV drugs and ulipristal acetate, a progesterone receptor modulator; however, ulipristal acetate is metabolized predominantly by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4, so interactions may occur (see the HIV Drug Interaction Checker).
• Use the prepregnancy period to modify the ARV regimen for people who are contemplating pregnancy to optimize virologic suppression and minimize potential adverse effects (see Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Table 7). Recognize that individuals with perinatally acquired HIV may have special needs (e.g., psychosocial support, adherence support)²⁵ (see Prenatal Care, Antiretroviral Therapy, and HIV Management in People with Perinatally Acquired HIV Infection).
• Recognize that transgender and gender-diverse people who were assigned female sex at birth may have special needs.²⁶ For transgender men attempting pregnancy, the use of testosterone may induce hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal suppression, leading to decreased ovulation.²⁷
• Recognize that the primary treatment goal for people with HIV who are planning a pregnancy should include sustained suppression of plasma viral load below the limit of detection before conception for their own health, to minimize the risk of perinatal HIV transmission, and to prevent sexual HIV transmission to a partner without HIV (see Reproductive Options for Couples When One or Both Partners Have HIV). Inform individuals who are considering or planning pregnancy that with ART started before pregnancy and an undetectable viral load maintained throughout pregnancy and delivery, their risk of HIV transmission to the infant is extremely low (<1%).^28,29
• Explain that people with HIV who take ART as prescribed and who achieve and maintain an undetectable viral load will not transmit HIV through sex, commonly known as Undetectable = Untransmittable or U=U. For more information, see Let’s Stop HIV Together.
• Encourage individuals to disclose their HIV status to their partner or co-parent before pregnancy if doing so is safe. However, this disclosure should not be a requirement of assisting couples in achieving pregnancy.
• Encourage sexual partners to receive HIV counseling and testing so that they can seek HIV care if they have HIV or seek advice about HIV prevention, including pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), if they do not have HIV (see Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) to Reduce the Risk of Acquiring HIV During Periconception, Antepartum, and Postpartum Periods).
• Ask about the use of alcohol, tobacco, and other substances. Provide or refer to evidence-based interventions for substance use disorder, including medication-assisted treatment for opioid use disorder (e.g., methadone, buprenorphine), and counsel people on how to manage health risks (e.g., access to a syringe services program). A 2019 analysis³⁰ reported that overall, 39% of women with HIV of reproductive age reported current drinking and 10% reported binge drinking. Compared to non-drinkers, binge drinkers were less likely to adhere to ART or be virally suppressed and more likely to smoke and use drugs. Between 2007 and 2019, marijuana use during pregnancy among women with HIV increased from 7.1% to 11.7%, whereas alcohol and opioid use were unchanged. Postpartum alcohol (44.4%), marijuana (13.6%), and concomitant alcohol and marijuana (10%) use were common; marijuana use increased from 10.2% in 2006 to 23.7% in 2019, whereas postpartum alcohol use was unchanged.³¹
• Counsel on maintaining a healthy diet and healthy weight before and during pregnancy.
• Counsel people who are contemplating pregnancy to take a daily multivitamin that contains 400 mcg of folic acid to help prevent neural tube defects (NTDs). Individuals with a history of having a child with NTDs, with a family history of NTDs, or on certain anti-epileptic medications, especially valproic acid, are candidates for receiving a higher dose (1,000–4,000 mcg) of folic acid. Higher doses of folate may also be considered for people receiving trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole who are trying to conceive (see Special Considerations in Pregnancy in Pneumocystis Pneumonia).
• Optimize the health of people with HIV prior to pregnancy (e.g., ensure appropriate folate intake, test for all sexually transmitted infections and treat as indicated, consider the teratogenic potential of all prescribed medications, and consider switching to safer medications).
• Educate and counsel about the risk factors for perinatal HIV transmission, the strategies to reduce those risks, and the potential effects HIV or taking ARV drugs during pregnancy may have on the course of pregnancy and health outcomes for the pregnant person and fetus.
• Support shared decision-making about ART. Educate and counsel on the factors that affect the selection of ARVs for people who are trying to conceive, are pregnant, or are postpartum. For more information, see Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy: Overview.
• Consider the following factors when prescribing ART to people of childbearing potential: the regimen’s effectiveness, changes in ARV pharmacokinetics (PK) in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy, an individual’s hepatitis B virus (HBV) status, possible adverse outcomes for the pregnant person and their fetus, and the likelihood of developing drug resistance.^32-34
• Provide patient-centered, evidence-based counseling to support shared decision-making about infant feeding (see Infant Feeding for Individuals with HIV in the United States). Information about and plans for infant feeding should be reviewed throughout pregnancy and again after delivery.
• Evaluate and manage ART-associated adverse effects (e.g., hyperglycemia, anemia, hepatotoxicity) that may affect health outcomes for the pregnant person and fetus.
• Administer all vaccines as indicated (see CDC’s Recommended Immunization Schedule and ACOG Maternal Immunization Practice Advisory 2022), which includes vaccination for influenza, pneumococcus, HBV, tetanus, and SARS-CoV-2.³⁵ All people, including those with HIV, should receive Tdap (tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis) vaccination during each pregnancy, typically between 27 and 36 weeks of gestation but preferably as early in this time window as possible.
• Ask pregnant people whether they feel safe at home and offer assistance or referrals for those experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) or requesting assistance.

Drug–Drug Interactions Between Hormonal Contraceptives and Antiretroviral Therapy 

Data on drug interactions between ARVs and hormonal contraceptives primarily come from drug labels and several studies on the PK and pharmacodynamics among the different forms of contraception and ARVs.^22,36-59 The contraceptive effectiveness of the LNG IUD is largely through local (i.e., intrauterine) release of LNG, not through systemic absorption. CDC’s U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use lists the LNG IUD as category 1 (no restrictions) in drug interactions with all ARVs in women who already have an IUD and category 1/2 (benefits outweigh risk) for those initiating the use of an IUD. 

Hormonal contraceptives can be used with ARVs in people with HIV without other contraindications. The contraception effect is usually attributable to the progestin component of contraceptives. Drug interactions that decrease concentrations of the progestin component may affect contraceptive efficacy. An alternative or additional contraceptive method may be recommended when drug interactions are known. For people receiving darunavir/ritonavir (DRV/r)-based ART, an alternative or additional contraception may be considered because the area under the curve (AUC) for oral contraceptive hormones may be decreased.60 Cobicistat-boosted protease inhibitors (PIs) are contraindicated with drosperinone-containing hormonal contraceptives due to the potential for hyperkalemia.⁵⁴ Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) can be used without restriction because of its relatively higher dose than other progesterone-based contraception, and limited studies have shown no significant interaction between DMPA and ARVs.^37,39,49,61 

Several studies have shown that the use of EFV decreases the effectiveness of hormonal implants and hormonal vaginal rings. Although contraceptive implants (e.g., etonogestrel [ENG], LNG) generally can be used in people who are receiving ARVs, both PK and clinical data suggest that these implants have decreased efficacy when used with EFV-based regimens.^47,62-64 LNG implants are not available in the United States. A PK evaluation reported that the geometric mean ratios of LNG concentrations (patients taking EFV-based ART vs. ART-naive patients) were 0.53 at 24 weeks and 0.43 at 48 weeks. Three pregnancies occurred in the EFV group (15%) between Week 36 and Week 48, whereas no pregnancies occurred in the ART-naive or nevirapine (NVP) groups.⁵¹

In a study of 570 women with HIV in Eswatini, formerly known as Swaziland, who had LNG implants (i.e., Jadelle), none of the women on NVP- or lopinavir/ritonavir-based regimens (n = 208 and n = 13, respectively) became pregnant, whereas 15 women on EFV (n = 121; 12.4%) became pregnant.⁴⁷ A prospective study in seven African countries collected data from 5,153 women with HIV who were followed for 1 to 3 years. During the follow-up period, 40% used injectables, 14% used oral contraceptives, and 9% of the women used implants (mostly LNG); 31% of these women took ART during the follow-up period, mostly NVP-containing (75%) or EFV-containing (15%) regimens. Among women who were not using contraception, pregnancy rates were 13.2 per 100 person-years for those who were on ART and 22.5 per 100 person-years for those who were not on ART. Implants greatly reduced the incidence of pregnancy among women on ART (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 0.06; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.01–0.45) and women who were not on ART (aHR 0.05; 95% CI, 0.02–0.11). Injectables and oral contraceptives also reduced pregnancy risk but to lesser degrees. A potential lesser degree of effectiveness of these methods may be due to their greater dependence on user action, as compared to longer acting methods. ART use did not significantly diminish contraceptive effectiveness, although all methods showed nonsignificant reduced contraceptive effectiveness when people used EFV concurrently.⁶⁵ 

In a retrospective study among 1,152 women with HIV using either EFV or NVP and ENG or LNG implants, 115 pregnancies occurred, yielding a pregnancy incidence rate of 6.32 (5.27–7.59), with a rate of 9.26 and 4.74 among ENG and LNG implant users, respectively. Pregnancy incidence rates did not differ between EFV- and NVP-based regimens (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 1.00; 95% CI, 0.71–1.43). No pregnancies were recorded among women on PI-based regimens. Pregnancy rates of EFV- and NVP-containing regimens were similar at 6.41 (4.70–8.73) and 6.44 (5.13–8.07), respectively. Pregnancy rates differed by implant type with LNG implant users half as likely to become pregnant as ENG implant users (IRR = 0.51; 95% CI, 0.33–0.73; P > 0.01).⁶⁶ A study of 42 women in Malawi (30 women with HIV on EFV and LNG, and 12 women without HIV on LNG) showed that EFV users had lower LNG concentrations that non-EFV users, and one-third of the EFV/LNG users had LNG concentrations <180 pg/mL, which is the suggested minimum level for efficacy. No pregnancies were reported over 60 women-years of follow-up.⁶⁷ 

In a non-randomized, open label, parallel group, longitudinal pharmacokinetic study among Ugandan women aged 18 to 45, participants with HIV who were on EFV 600 mg received double-dose 300-mg LNG implants and were compared to women without HIV who received standard-dose 150-mg LNG implants. Plasma LNG concentration was quantified more than 48 weeks after implant insertion. LNG AUC from 0 to 24 weeks was 34% lower among women taking 300-mg LNG plus ART versus women taking 150-mg LNG (geometric mean 9,998 vs. 15,231 pg•week/mL, respectively). Double-dose LNG implants did not completely overcome the drug–drug interaction with EFV⁵⁸; therefore, prescribing double-dose LNG implants is not recommended to overcome this drug–drug interaction. Since ovulatory activity was noted among women taking 300-mg LNG plus ART, another contraceptive method that does not interact with EFV is needed. 

Genetic contributions also may influence observed drug–drug interactions between contraceptives and ARVs. In a study of 19 women not on ART (control group), 19 women on EFV, and 19 women on NVP, all received ENG implants. Women in the EFV group with CYP2B6 516 G>T had 43% lower ENG minimum plasma concentration (C_min) and 34% lower AUC from 0 to 24 hours postdose (AUC_0–24) at 24 weeks. For women on NVP, those with NR1I2 63396 C>T had lower ENG C_min and 37% lower AUC_0–24 at 24 weeks.⁵⁵ A PK study reported that EFV reduced the median ENG level by at least 93% in CYP2B6 slow metabolizers versus 75% in normal and intermediate metabolizers. EFV reduced median ethinyl estradiol (EE) concentration by 75% in slow metabolizers and 41% in normal and intermediate metabolizers among women using hormonal vaginal ring contraceptives.⁶⁸

Tuberculosis Treatment, Antiretrovirals, and Contraception 

Other medications, such as concomitant tuberculosis (TB) treatment and ARVs, may also have drug–drug interactions with contraceptives. A PK study of DMPA among women with HIV/TB coinfection who received EFV-based HIV treatment and rifampicin-based TB treatment showed that among 42 evaluable women, 5 women (11.9%; 95% CI, 4.0% to 25.6%) had medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) <0.1 ng/mL at Week 12, the level above which ovulation is prevented; of these women, 1 had MPA <0.1 ng/mL at Week 10. The median clearance of MPA was higher in women on EFV compared with women with HIV who were not on ART, thus leading to subtherapeutic concentrations of MPA in 12% of women at Week 12.⁶⁹ After performing PK modeling with DMPA and ART, the authors of this study suggested redosing DMPA more frequently,⁷⁰ such as every 8 to 10 weeks. In a PK study of the interaction between DMPA, EFV, rifampicin, and isoniazid (INH) during treatment for HIV and tuberculosis, there were no associations between either CYP2B6 or N-acetyltransferase 2 genotype and MPA Cmin at Week 12. The study was not designed to distinguish inductive effects of rifampicin from possible inhibitory effects of INH on MPA clearance.

Nevertheless, the authors recommended that more frequent DMPA dosing may be appropriate for women receiving all these medications.⁷¹

Long-Acting Cabotegravir

In a secondary analysis of 85 cisgender women enrolled in HPTN 077, compared to women reporting no hormonal contraception (n = 6), oral contraceptive use (n = 18) was associated with lower long-acting cabotegravir (CAB-LA) peak concentration but was not associated with other PK parameters, suggesting this association is not likely to be clinically significant. No other hormonal contraceptive type (injectable, implants, and other) was associated with significant differences in CAB-LA PK parameters.⁷²

Vaginal Ring 

A new contraceptive vaginal ring containing segesterone/EE (Annovera) has recently been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. No available drug–drug interaction studies with this contraceptive vaginal ring and ARV and CYP inducers/inhibitors are known. The contraceptive may possibly be metabolized in the same way as ENG and EE in the NuvaRing (see Table 3 below).⁵⁷ 

Table 3 

Because data are limited on pregnancy rates among people on different hormonal contraceptives and ARVs, some of the dosing recommendations in Table 3 are based on consensus expert opinion. Whenever possible, the recommendations are based on available data regarding PK interactions between ARVs and combined hormonal methods, DMPA, and LNG and ENG implants. The smallest decrease in PK for which an alternative method was recommended was a 14% decrease in norethindrone (with DRV/r). The Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission does not recommend any change in EE dose in people who are receiving etravirine (EE increased 22%) or rilpivirine (EE increased 14%).   

Table 3. Drug Interactions Between Antiretroviral Agents and Hormonal Contraceptives

Note: All recommendations in this table are based on consensus expert opinion. Additional information can be found in CDC’s Update to U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2016: Updated Recommendations for the Use of Contraception Among Women at High Risk for HIV Infection.⁶⁸

References

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